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El método etnográfico ha sufrido numerosas modificaciones a lo largo del tiempo. Cuestiones como la permanencia en el campo, las técnicas de investigación o la ética, directamente vinculada a la observación participante, han tomado valores diferentes con el paso de los años y a medida que han variado los contextos, preceptos epistemológicos o los marcos interpretativos en la investigación cualitativa. Ahora, con la etnografía virtual, hay una tendencia a asumir algunos principios metodológicos como preestablecidos. Ese es el caso de un postulado que viene a decir:
“La etnografía virtual asume una serie de estrategias de investigación, siendo la más empleada la de la aproximación a la comunidad desde la perspectiva etnográfica de la comunicación (por ejemplo, la aproximación etnográfica sociolingüística) para situar las reglas y regularidades que limitan el espacio del campo”.
A partir de ahí, o para llegar ahí, también se suelen asumir regularidades que van, desde acudir a las FAQ (preguntas frecuentes) de la comunidad virtual o recopilar los mensajes publicados en los foros, hasta realizar encuestas electrónicas o entrevista a través de correo electrónico. Ese es un tipo de investigación muy interesante desde el punto de vista social y cultural, ya que permite conocer la evolución y el estado actual de una comunidad virtual determinada. Desde ese enfoque, la comunidad virtual se toma como el campo de observación en el sentido bourdieuano [Véase Bourdieu, Pierre y Loic Wacquant, Respuestas. Por una antropología reflexiva, México, Grijalbo, 1995], es decir, se trata de un espacio de juego determinado mediante regularidades de conducta y reglas aceptadas. Mediante el rastreo de los mensajes y conociendo las reglas que regulan la comunidad, el investigador puede acceder al comportamiento y la temática de esa comunidad virtual, a su visión, a las peculiaridades que la definen y la diferencian del resto. Igualmente, aplicando la perspectiva de Hymes es posible determinar las principales regularidades sociolingüísticas que, desde un punto de vista cultural, son básicas para explicar los comportamientos en comunidades virtuales basadas en el intercambios de mensajes simbólicos en formato texto.
Esas estrategias son muy prácticas cuando se trata de hacer etnografía virtual, etnografía del ciberespacio. Sin embargo todas ellas pueden ser ampliadas de un modo más abierto cuando hablamos de hacer etnografía en/desde/con/entre Internet. Considerar Internet en un sentido etnográfico supone igualmente problematizar la tecnología que la soporta y hacerlo en el contexto de la sociedad donde se ha creado. Para Latour (2006), estamos viviendo en un mundo donde los vínculos sociales se establecen por medio de los significados que posibilitan artefactos construidos de forma artificial. Problematizar y mostrar extrañamiento ante la tecnología de Internet puede ayudar a convertir los métodos cualitativos de la entrevista y la observación en elementos centrales de una etnografía en/de Internet y sus fenómenos asociados. El objetivo entonces será el de gestionar las “anomalías” (Werner y Schoepfle, 1987) de Internet en su conjunto durante el período de investigación para hacer, a continuación, un análisis del contenido de los datos y representarlos de modo etnográfico. Y para ello será necesario emplear nuevos métodos adecuados a un campo así definido.
Es claro que la etnografía no consiste en una suma de métodos cualitativos, sino en la comprensión de una cultura haciendo uso de esos métodos de forma sistemática (científica). En el terreno metodológico, al etnografía virtual también necesita replantearse la “crisis del método”, pero de una forma específica. Puede que visitar foros, preguntar a los participantes y analizar listados de FAQs no sea suficiente para acceder a los códigos culturales de una determinada comunidad. Igualmente un tipo de análisis del contenido textual (el producto cultural de la comunidad) basado únicamente en la codificación y categorización, puede no ser del todo eficaz para comprender el sentido profundo de las comunicaciones. Del mismo modo que el cognitivismo y la etnología ayudaron en los años sesenta a la superación de la crisis del método en la etnografía, en la actualidad son otras los recursos metodológicos a disposición de los investigadores para acceder a las formas culturales vinculadas a la red. La crisis de los sesenta se apoyó en la etnología para ayudar al investigador a adquirir un conocimiento de la cultura que estaba estudiando para poder así intercambiar significados a sus interlocutores. Entonces se trataba de que ambos, investigador e investigado, compartieran los mismos códigos culturales para que entre ambos se pudiera dar un diálogo significativo para la investigación.
Pero, cómo conocer más profundamente una comunidad virtual, o una comunidad formada por personas que interactúan en el terreno de Internet y trasladas sus acciones también al campo de acción físico (como ocurre, por ejemplo, con la mayoría de comunidades de blogers). En otros post hemos hablado del constructivismo social (Gergen y Gergen, 2003) y la ciencia social preformativa (Jones) como respuestas epistemológicas y teóricas. En el terreno específicamente metodológico, el análisis de redes sociales puede ser un enfoque de amplio recorrido para la etnografía en/de Internet.
Veamos un ejemplo extraído del trabajo de campo en comunidades virtuales con finalidades formativas en torno a foros virtuales. En otro trabajo (Domínguez y Alonso, 2005, p.385) [Combined Evaluation of On-Line Learning Communities. En Méndez, A.; González, B; Mesa, J. y Mesa, J.A. (Eds.), Recent Research Developments in Learning Technologies, Badajoz (Spain), FORMATEX, pp. 384-389] comentábamos que:
“Determinados comportamientos con escaso potencial formativo en situaciones offline, demuestran ser decisivos para articular gran parte del conocimiento generado en un foro virtual. En nuestras observaciones hemos visto con frecuencia mensajes con un contenido irrelevante desde el punto de vista pedagógico que, sin embargo, adquirieren una importancia central dentro del foro, agrupando comunicaciones y generando debate y reflexión en torno a ellos. (…) la explicación a esas desviaciones en las contingencias y reciprocidades comunicativas en el ciberespacio –y otras encontradas en foros educativos, como la ausencia de relación entre número de mensajes emitidos y respuestas obtenidas o entre la tipología del discurso, más o menos estructurada, y la resolución de dudas en el grupo– no son resueltas adecuadamente en las [actuales] investigaciones de corte etnográfico, lo que lleva a buscar otros enfoques complementarios que permitan enriquecer el estudio pedagógico de las comunidades virtuales.
El análisis de redes sociales (ARS) está en condiciones de rellenar esa clase de lagunas. Fuera de los razonamientos positivistas, los métodos estructurales y de ARS permiten explicar en términos relacionales el peso de un mensaje dentro de la red de comunicación establecida en un foro virtual. Y también, considerando los atributos personales de los participantes, el ARS aporta claves relevantes que pueden explicar los procesos de socialización en una determinada comunidad. Tomados como nodos dentro de una red de comunicación, algunos mensajes en foros virtuales pueden analizarse por su contenido empleando técnicas de análisis de datos cualitativos ‘blandos’, pero su relevancia como parte de la matriz relacional de todos los mensajes al foro posee además una justificación en términos de centralidad, conectividad o grado de intermediación de ese nodo con los demás de la red. En ese sentido, al ARS no viene a interponerse a los métodos cualitativos clásicos, simplemente enriquece el análisis aportando informaciones sobre el estado de la cuestión que permiten reflexionar nuevamente acerca de los procesos –sociales o de aprendizaje– que tienen lugar en el seno del grupo.”
Esta aproximación también es citada por Anne Beaulieu (2004) en referencia a la no-subjetividad del etnógrafo. Beaulieu menciona el trabajo de Howard (2002), basado en el método de la “etnografía reticular”, que emplea al ARS para estudiar el cómo y los términos de las organizaciones hypermedia. Integrado en la etnografía este método hace posible que, por un lado el etnógrafo identifique los comportamientos más próximos en el conjunto de relaciones reticulares y, además, permite acceder a la distribución de las relaciones en el conjunto de la red. “El objeto del estudio [de Howard] se produjo aquí por abstracción de ciertos comportamientos o funciones individuales, y la representación de esos comportamientos en el campo es determinante. Los elementos de la interacción con los actores son modelados por la identificación de sitios de trabajo de campo a través del uso de procesos automatizados” (Beaulieu, 2004, p.149).
Estos enfoques novedosos aplicados a la etnografía virtual hacen que el centro de atención pase de la comunicación a la intermediación, y del análisis holístico del contenido a mediaciones concretas, como las que posibilitan procesos situados que dan lugar a construcciones sociales localizadas. En ese sentido, la etnografía virtual podría entenderse como una etnografía estructurada en torno a casos concretos dentro y fuera de la red, vinculados entre sí por medio de complejas relaciones mediadas por artefactos tecnológicos, de los que Internet solo sería uno más de ellos. Por consiguiente, resolver la nueva crisis del método etnográfico cuando entran en juego factores tecnológicos digitales, tendría que ver con afrontar y resolver con el uso de métodos de penetración, análisis y representación, la complejidad del entramado relacional que está implicando a sujetos y a máquinas al mismo tiempo.
Seguimos...

121 comments:

Anonymous said...

Estamos en sintonía, Daniel. El problema con tratar la culturas de Internet como culturas puramente textuales (es interesante el concepto de 'textual communities' que maneja Eichhorn) es que no hay argumentos para sostener que uno pueda centrarse únicamente en el texto y olvidar el resto de elementos que permiten el desarrollo de esas culturas. Esos otros elementos materiales: ordenadores, portátiles, software, etc., que resultan esenciales para el desarrollo de esos colectivos. ¿Qué argumento es el que nos permite prescindir de la dimensión material de los colectivos?, ¿por qué podemos prescindir de los dispositivos materiales cuando analizamos los colectivos que cristalizan en Internet?

Cada vez más, determinados fenómenos, comportamientos, colectivos, etc. que surgen en Internet se explican más por la relación que los individuos establecen con los artefactos (pensemos en un usuario de Flickr, en uno de delicious, etc.) que por la mediación que esos artefactos permiten con otros individuos.

Reducir a lo puramente textual las comunidades ya no funciona. Aunque quizás era una aproximación válida antes. Y ¿por qué ahora no?, sencillamente porque los dispositivos y artefactos han cambiado.

Justamente, esos "mensajes con un contenido irrelevante", sin carácter informativo, pero que son de gran importancia, justamente eso apunta a que analizar lo textual no es suficiente. Ito señala el carácter conectivo de los mensajes de texto triviales a través del teléfono, y Elisabeth Nardi apunta la importancia de mensajes como 'ehy!', a través de la mensajería instantánea. !Y qué decir de los hiperenlaces¡, lo linguístico y lo tecnológico se funden en ellos.

Una nota final: el problema con la aproximación basada en la Network Ethnography de Howard es que él usa el análisis de redes para construir su campo. Y eso es insuficiente. Uno no puede pensar que el campo está construido sólo por aquello que deja rastros visibles. Ciertamente el análisis de redes puede ser útil en la etnografía, pero sólo de forma complementaria. El enfoque de Howard,e n mi opinión, hace que la construcción del campo pivote sobre el análisis de redes, y eso dejará fuera, probablemente, elementos importantes.

Chapeau por el nuevo blog, Daniel.

Eichhorn, K. (2001). Sites unseen: ethnographic research in a textual community. Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(4), 565-578.

https://somia.wordpress.com/2006/09/04/biblio-%e2%80%98sites-unseen-ethnographic-research-in-a-textual-community%e2%80%99/

Daniel Dominguez said...

En efecto, ese enfoque me parece muy adecuado en el actual estado de la cuestión. La superación de la dicotomía real/virtual que se logra integrando los artefactos en el "problema" de investigación y, por supuesto, considerados como partes materiales del campo de estudio, en interacción con él, en diálogo. Eso puede entenderse desde una óptica constructivista y también materialista, si se quiere... pero, al tratarse del estudio de fenómenos socio-culturales, eso no deja fuera la interpretación de los significados en un contexto complejo ...
Sobre el análisis de redes sociales ARS), he introducido esa aproximacón a partir de la "crisis" del método de la etnografía virtual que surge cuando se consideran los aspectos anteriores. Yo he llegado al ARS, como cuento en mi trabajo, desde la falta de puntos de apoyo, de anclajes metodológicos, para abarcar el campo con las estrategias convencionales de la entrevista y la observación. Esas estrategias son adecuadas y son pilares de la investigación etnográfica, pero no permiten abarcar el campo cuando entran en juego las cuestiones materiales que intermeidian los rasgos culturales en el ciberspacio. Yo soy crítico con el ARS. Es un método que carece de una base epistemológica. Quizás no la necesite, no es su labor discernir lo que ocurre --en un sentido profundo-- en los procesos sociales o en las agupaciones relacionales de cualquier tipo. Para ello necesita apoyarse en teorías y en metodoogías de investigación fundamentadas epistemologicamente. Es ahí donde cobra todo su valor descriptivo, ya sea en sociología, antropología, psicología, educación... Yo, como creo que también haces tú, lo traigo a la etnografía como apoyo, para permitir al investigador abarcar el campo con más instrumentos que los empleados en la etnografía clásica. Coincido contigo en que el artículo de Howard es demasiado "dependiente" de las redes. Pretende explicarlo todo a partir de ellas. Eso es muy habitual en las investigaciones basadas en redes, que suelen terminar con muchas preguntas abiertas y pocas respuestas. En etnografía parece difícil adquirir conocimiento profundo de la cultura y de lo que ocurre en una situación concreta solo con ARS. Pero, por otro lado, el ARS es una herramienta muy potente para dibujar escenarios basadas en la mediación entre sujetos en distintos contextos y empleando distintos conectores.
Ya sabes, se trata de abrir campos a la investigación... en eso estamos...
Seguimos...

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